Crowd Sourcing of Crisis Information COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Crowd Sourcing of Crisis Information COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog A group of SIPA students was recently featured on Al Jazeeras Web site.   The story (text and video) shows how technology developed in Kenya is making it possible to have an impact during crisis situations, even if those interested in assisting are thousands of miles away.   The text below is taken from the Al Jazeera Web site. University students have always been known for their activism, but I just met a group at Columbia University’s School of Public Affairs (SIPA) who are using technology to take it to a new level. They are volunteers who have been holed up in the basement of the school’s library, despite their exams, ever since an earthquake struck Chile. They work in shifts from a tiny room without windows, amid half-eaten snacks and potato-chip wrappers, but they are able to have a direct impact on how aid is delivered to the people in Chile   thanks to an amazing new tool available right on their laptops. They are using an open source   meaning anyone can use it computer program called Ushahidi. Ushahidi allows them to take information provided by text messages, email, and twitter and create a “crisis map” of where help is needed. Al Jazeeras Kristen Saloomey reports from Columbia University in New York city where the technology is being applied.

Essay on Ethical Dilemma - 3369 Words

The case study presents a moral dilemma based on potential harm to innocent people. By using Kohlberg’s moral development model and by examining major ethical systems, namely deontology and utilitarianism, a clear understanding of the factors influencing this type of decision-making can be gained. Specifically, utilitarianism, Kant’s categorical imperative and the doctrine of double effect address the decision from differing viewpoints, providing the decision maker with compelling evidence to support both angles of the ethical and moral dilemma presented in the decision at hand. A decision can then be made if it is considered morally justified, depending on the model used to make the decision. Often the solution of an ethical dilemma would†¦show more content†¦The logical reasoning at the Level III, Stage 6 would allow the acting CO to absorb outside influences yet still conclude that the decision to close the hatch is the best. He would no doubt meet resistanc e from the other submariners regarding his decision. By closing the hatch you save the majority of the remaining men and the submarine. There is the personal ethical dilemma where as A/CO, you are consciously aware that you will cause the men to die inside the engineering compartment. The ethical dilemma between closing the hatch or to keep attempting to try to rescue the men at all costs requires further analysis using teleological ethics. Teleological systems are based on person’s acts therefore the result of the act is more important than the nature of the act (Pojman Fieser, 2009). Utilitarianism is defined as a universal system that calls for the maximization of the goodness in society and is considered the dominant version of teleological systems. Pojman and Feiser (2009) describe two main features of utilitarianism; the consequentialist principle and the utility principle. The consequentialist principle is where the moral rightness or wrongness of the act is determin ed by the consequences of the act, not the act itself. As A/CO, the act of closing the hatch will result in presumably saving the lives of other submariners (or at least a better chance of survival). But it also causes the death of three men. Therefore, according to theShow MoreRelatedEthical Dilemmas Of The Workplace1538 Words   |  7 Pages1. Discuss an ethical dilemma that you have had to face in the workplace. Ethical dilemmas often occur when a manager or an employee is faced with two or more conflicting choices. Give as many facts and details as possible in describing your dilemma. The most difficult ethical dilemma I have dealt with was a summer job I had this past summer, while I was working for a bakery in my hometown. This past particular summer really tested what I believe is right and wrong and how to speak up. One of myRead MoreEthical Dilemmas Of The Workplace1291 Words   |  6 PagesEthical Dilemmas in the Workplace As a manager, you are the role model for staff. You set the standards, adhere to guidelines, and exemplify what you expect staff to model. By doing so, you are establishing and sustaining an organizational culture of ethics and integrity, which is the backbone of all successful endeavors. However, even the best structured organizations face ethical dilemmas in the workplace. It is how management recognizes and addresses these occurrences that will either set themRead MoreEthical Dilemma Assignment1766 Words   |  8 PagesCONSENT FORM Thank you for being willing to take part in this interview exploring ethical conflict or turbulence. I would like to transcribe the content of this interview to form a written document to be submitted to Sheffield Hallam University as a piece of assessed piece of coursework. It is important that you only take part in this interview if you want to. As such I would be delighted if you would complete and sign this confidentiality questionnaire prior to the interview taking place. (i)Read MoreCase Analysis : Ethical Dilemma1318 Words   |  6 PagesTitle of Paper: Ethical Dilemma One INTRODUCTION Mrs. Smith, is an 81-year-old widow. She has been widowed for over twenty years. She has been very independent with some assistance from neighbors due to her son living out of the area and unable to assist. Recently, she has had issues with her independence. She has set two accidental fires that caused damages to her apartment, as well as had a recent fall in the bathtub. These issues have gained her son’s attention which has led him to requestRead MoreEthical Dilemma at Workplace Essay1192 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Introduction – What is an ethical dilemma? Ethics is the term we give to our concern for good behavior.   It is human nature to not only be concerned with our own personal well being, but also that of others and of human society as a whole.   The difference between moral dilemmas and ethical ones, philosophers say, is that in moral issues the choice is between right and wrong.   In ethical ones, the choice is between two rights. Everyday Im faced with decisions of right and wrong, most of whichRead Moret Types of ethical dilemmas Mastery67Questions123Materials Essay2477 Words   |  10 PagesTypes of ethical dilemmas Mastery 67% Questions 1 2 3 Materials on the concept: Typical Moral Dilemmas Confronting Business Communicators Ethics and Law for Management Communication Top of Form 1. As part of an effort to hire younger workers, a multinational organization assures applicants that they will get to visit its offices in other countries and work with the employees there. However, only two out of every nine workers actually get selected for such projects. What moral dilemma best fitsRead MoreEthical Dilemma Case Study842 Words   |  4 PagesAn ethical dilemma is a situation by which its difficult to determine whether a situation is can be handled without disappointing both sides. Therefore, an ethical dilemma exists when the right thing to do is clear or when members of the healthcare team cannot agree on the right thing to do. Ethical dilemmas require negotiation of different points of view (potter, Perry, Stockert, Hall 2011pg 78). The case study briefly explains a situation between daughter and father regarding the fathersRead MoreThe Ethical Dilemmas of Collecting Data and the Consequential Revision of Commodities, Culture and the Politics of Representations Definitions 1751 Words   |  7 Pagesinformation or data has become assets to companies, being regarded as property to be bought and sold to between companies. However, this has put forward the following primary ethical dilemmas surrounding human rights: the right to informed consent and the right to personal data. In addition to the creation of ethical dilemmas, the collection of human data has brought about a need for a revision of definitions. Commodities are known as a raw material or primary agricultural product that can be boughtRead MoreVices and Virtues: Ethical Dilemmas of a Fading Man Essay1932 Words   |  8 PagesVices Virtues: Ethical Dilemmas of a Fading Man When Sidney Stewart was freed in Manchuria in 1945 after 3 years of imprisonment by the Japanese, the 6’3 American weighed 65 pounds (Goldstein). Stewart was an Army private stationed in Manila in 1942 when they were overpowered by the Japanese. The 21 year-old wasn’t the killing type of soldier. Of course he killed when required, but he wasn’t murderous. He’d been sent to Luzon on the Bataan peninsula after the Japanese invasion and was soonRead MoreNursing Leaders Are Struggling Ethical Dilemmas1263 Words   |  6 Pagesstruggling in ethical dilemmas daily. Ethical dilemma is one of the issue/challenge to the nursing leader. Ethical dilemmas occur when nursing personal values and beliefs conflict with some aspect of nursing care. The struggle is to provide the best nursing care despite of the nurses’ feelings. For example: RN/ nursing leader in residential home has always dilemmas while restraining the patient. sometime patient become so aggr essive that they can harm other people and worker. The dilemma in this situation

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Institute of Management Accounting’s Free Essays

Institute of Management Accounting’s (IMA) mission is to provide a forum for research, practice development, education, knowledge sharing, and the advocacy of the highest ethical and best business practices in management accounting and finance. The IMA has strongly enforced ethics since it’s inception. Their ethics committee was one of the first committees established in 1919, at their very first meeting. We will write a custom essay sample on Institute of Management Accounting’s or any similar topic only for you Order Now It was call ‘The Standard of Ethical Conduct for Management Accountants. This shows that the IMA is extremely serious when it comes to the professionalism required by it’s members. This guideline has been revised twice, once in 1979 and then again in 2005. Upon the last revision, the code of ethical conduct became the IMA Statement of Ethical Professional Practice. All members must take an oath and adhere to the Institute of Management Accounting (IMA) Standards of Ethical Professional Practice. The are four main principles of this code of ethical conduct. They are: I. Honesty II. Fairness III. Objectivity IV. Responsibility It is the responsibility of every accountant to comply with these standards to avoid any type of disciplinarian action. According to the IMA each member must be professional. Many of the areas of professionalism to be maintained includes a commitment to education. This is the section of the IMA Statement of Ethical Professional Practice that requires all accountant members to stay abreast of the many laws, regulations and technical standards. Due to our everyday landscape and the continual changes in accounting, taxes, etc. , the IMA has a continuing education (CE) requirement. All accountants must take a certain amount of CE classes so that they’ll be able to provide sound advice to their clients. This does not only keep them knowledgeable, it also keeps them aware of their professional limitations. Another part of an accountant’s responsibility is to respect the confidentiality of their clients. They must maintain a high level of scrutiny to make sure that not only do they always perform ethically and within the law, but they must also make sure that all of the activities of their subordinates are legal. This requires a great deal of integrity. To have integrity. The official definition of integrity is: Steadfast adherence to a strict moral or ethical code. This is the basis of IMA’s existence. Aristotle once said, ‘We do not act rightly because we have virtue or excellence, but rather we have those because we have acted rightly. It is obvious that there is no room for error when it come to the IMA’s code of ethical conduct. An accountant must be ethical when discussing any financial reporting, including advice and recommendations. He needs to assess the financial state of the company to the best of his ability. It is his duty and responsibility to be forthcoming with ALL revenues, expenses, assets and liabilities and let the chips fall where they may. In essence, they must be fair and objective. The IMA’s ethics guidelines have been used by other companies and organizations in some shape, form or fashion for many years. This tells you that this ethical guideline, in particular, is something that crosses all lines. It is very easy to live your life with these principles. As a matter of fact, the IMA expects their members to behave in their personal life and community with the ethical professionalism that is required in their profession. As a student, I can, have and will continue to use every single one of these principles. It is quite obvious that there are many ways to access information with the advent of the internet. Therefore, students today have access to many things that were not available 30 or even 20 years ago. It now takes a great deal of commitment to honesty to maintain one’s integrity. As a student, I too, must maintain that sense of integrity. I believe integrity is the basis of the entire IMA’s Statement of Profession Ethical Conduct. Let’s see how this can is relevant to me as a student. To remain honest in this society is becoming more rare that the norm. It is imperative that I maintain my sense of honesty throughout my education. As a student, there are a variety of ethical decisions to be made at any given time. I will have to make an ethical choices every single day. By being honest and accountable with my decisions, I will actually take away a higher and more thorough learning experience. As a student there are many opportunities for fraudulent behavior up to and including plagiarism. There are many students who are motivated by the consequences of their dishonesty and others who are only motivated by the end result. In other words, they would do it, if they knew for sure that they wouldn’t get caught. Those are the students that are lacking in integrity. Personally, my motivation is the consequence of losing out on the education of a lifetime. I’m a Clarity Coach. I help people see their life with clarity. In doing so, I expect to be true to myself. If I can’t see things clearly, and I can only do that by being honest with myself, then how do I expect to help others get to the next level in their life. I am motivated by my passion for knowledge. I want to know more and I want to learn more. I can only do these by adhering to my personal code of ethics. To be competent is to be knowledgeable. One gains a sense of knowledge by learning. The only way to learn is to perform as a student. As a student, there are certain guidelines that you must adhere to. Every university has their own set of rules and regulations. One obvious rule is to enroll and perform in classes. This must be done to continue to develop my knowledge and skills. If that doesn’t happen, either party (you or the university) can decide look at other options. You can make the choice to leave or your school can make that choice for you. In reference to me, I must do everything possible to learn what’s put before me to successfully perform in the business program, in other words, I must be competent. There are several reasons to maintain a sense of confidentiality. By revealing privileged information, we can have a substantial impact on other individuals. Anything that precludes another individual from gaining the perceived level of education from taking a course, is quite frankly, unethical and illegal in respect to the inferred rule that everyone is allowed an education. There are several advantages of maintaining confidentiality, the most important one is promoting the opportunity to learn. There is an inherent sense of confidentiality that I must observe hen it comes to the sharing of curriculum assignments, research papers, and a host personal information. In a class environment, you may find out personal information just by the nature of classroom interaction, as well as group projects. Again, it is imperative not to disclose any confidential information acquired during these interactions unless expressly authorized to do so. It is also a huge part of the learning experience for the instructor to maintain a sense of confidentiality to their students. A breech could impact that students interaction, absorption of the information and prevent them from seeking assistance when/if needed. If a professor is confidential with a students information and/or private dealings, they actually strengthen that relationship and foster continued learning and trust in that student. I’m sure it could have a huge impact on my classroom performance. I have to maintain a sense of fairness and objectivity at all times, when it comes to responding to my classmates, group members and professors. I need to be mindful that everyone is entitled to their own opinion, including myself. However, I need to express it in a fair and balanced manner. When we consider the challenges that have been faced by many of our major corporations and accounting firms, along with the SL catastrophe from years ago, we quickly see how ‘creative’ financial managers can put us all at risk of losing what we’ve worked so hard for, at any given time. If only these companies were committed to the guidelines of the IMA, we could have quite possibly had a very different ‘corporate climate’ all together. It’s quite possible that major ‘financial disasters like Enron and WorldCom would have been unthinkable and therefore non-existent. It is also quite obvious that the IMA’s Statement of Ethical Professional Practice is relevant for so many corporations, organizations and even individuals like me. Today, with the advent of the internet, there are so many ways to compromise your integrity. Students today have access to many things that were not available 30 or even 20 years ago. I can honestly say that it takes a great deal of commitment to honesty to maintain one’s integrity. As a student, every day I make the choice to live my life with integrity. How to cite Institute of Management Accounting’s, Essay examples

Socialization Is a Lifelong Process of Change free essay sample

In its most common and general usage, the term ‘‘socialization’’ refers to the process of interaction through which an individual (a novice) acquires the norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, and language characteristic of his or her group. In the course of acquiring these cultural elements, the individual self and personality are created and shaped. For much of its history, the concept of socialization has been heavily imbued with the notion of adaptation and conformity of the individual to societal expectations. The past few decades, however, have seen a marked shift to a more active view of the self, with an emphasis on self-socialization. Renewed interest in the self-concept as a source of motivation (Gecas 1986) and an agent in its environment has contributed to this shift, as has the increased interest in adult socialization (Levenson amp; Crumpler 1996). Even in studies of parent-child interaction, the child (even the infant) is increasingly viewed as an active partner in his or her socialization (Rheingold 1969). We will write a custom essay sample on Socialization Is a Lifelong Process of Change or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In short, the outcomes of socialization (whether conceptualized as values, self-conceptions, behavior patterns, or beliefs) are increasingly viewed as the products of reciprocal and negotiated interactions between agent and socializee. Within sociology, there have been two main orientations toward socialization. One views socialization primarily as the learning of social roles. From this perspective, individuals become integrated members of society by learning and internalizing the relevant roles and statuses of the groups to which they belong (Brim 1966). This view has been present in some form from the beginnings of sociology as a discipline but has been most closely associated with structural functionalist perspectives. The other, more prevalent sociological orientation views socialization mainly as self-concept formation. The development of self and identity in the context of intimate and reciprocal relations is considered the core of socialization. This view is closely associated with the symbolic interactionist perspective, a synthesis of various strands of pragmatism, behaviorism, and idealism that emerged in the 1920s and 1930s in the writings of a number of scholars at the University of Chicago, especially Mead (1934). In Mead’s writings, the self is a reflexive, thoroughly social phenomenon that develops through language or symbolic interaction. Children’s proper socialization depends on mother contribution. There is none who contributes the same as the mother. It is now very common sight that women are working outside the home. So the children are being socialized by a difficult process. The educated working mother can take extra care as they are more aware than the non educated mother. On the other hand the non educated working mother is not so aware about their child socialization in most of the cases. In the rural areas of Bangladesh the gap of child socialization between educated and non educated working mother is increasing significantly. This study is conducted in rural area base in order to find out the basic difference of child socialization process between educated and non educated working mother and encouraging every mother in proper child socialization process by the study.

Asthma and Pollution in Phoenix, Arizona Essay Example

Asthma and Pollution in Phoenix, Arizona Essay Example Asthma and Pollution in Phoenix, Arizona Paper Asthma and Pollution in Phoenix, Arizona Paper Introduction: World Regions with accounted mild Asthma are southern Europe with 63%, Australia and New Zealand with 42%. Proportions of people with severe asthma, on the other hand, are 28% in Australia and New Zealand, 26% in Portland, 21% in United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, both 17% in Central and Northern Europe, and 15% in souther Europe. United States has many persons with asthma cases. A research estimated that 20 million had asthma in the country (http://phoenix.about.com/cs/health/a/asthma01.htm). Though asthma, over the past 30 years, is rarely a cause of death for Americans, it had caused them an estimate of $12.7 billion in 1998 alone. Phoenix, Arizona is one of the States in America known for its concentration of asthma patients in its several asthma treatment centers. Does this conclude that living in Arizona makes people more prone to Asthma? What is the current state of its surroundings that may affect the health condition of these people? Background: Asthma is a continual lung disease. Persons living with it are suffering from coughing and shortness of breath caused by the inflammation of his airways. According to medical practitioners in the U.S. government, asthma is hereditary meaning someone that has asthma can have a close relative in the family that also has its unpleasant symptoms.   But new research suggest that being exposed to things that triggers asthma early in life may increase the chances of developing this disease(nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Asthma/). Asthma is incurable, but it could be controlled so that few and infrequent symptoms can be experienced. Asthma episodes or attacks happened when symptoms get worse than usual. Asthma attack is characterized by the tightening of airways causing airways narrower so the person experience less air intake. In addition, airways cells make more mucus intended for trapping foreign materials that flows with the air inhaled. These two actions by the body make the person hard to breathe. Severe asthma attacks could cause death because of non-delivery of renewed oxygen to vital organs such as the brain and the heart, and non-exhaustion of waste gases from the body such as carbon dioxide. In case of severe asthma attacks, an immediate medical attention is necessary. Several prescribed medicines would make the affected body of the person in control. To avoid such attacks, persons with asthma were advised to consult with his doctor regularly. Asthma is said to be one of the leading causes of children missing in school. Also, occupational asthma are said to be the most prevaling work-related lung disease in developing countries (lycos.com/info/asthmaunited-states.html). Asthma in Phoenix   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Two of United States top 25 cities with the highest asthma prevalence were Tucson ranking first and Phoenix, not far ranking third. Both of them come from the state of Arizona. Someone would presume based on these given data that the latter is one of the worst places for asthmatics. But this would not be the case. Before someone judges, he should first consider all factors that could contribute to these facts. Before, the State of Arizona governing the city of Phoenix had started an ambition of making its territory as a health destination. The government had permitted to build several asthma treatment centers with attractive facilities causing many asthmatics to migrate for a better living in this place. Its climate characteristics which are dry, warm and sunny made Phoenix together with the other parts of Arizona more attractive to better-health seekers. Asthmatics belonging to the middle and upper class, upon knowing this government program, had the n left their own place and inquired how to settle permanently in Arizona. Asthmatics community builds up in the area, mixed up with the local community, they get into inter-marriage, families expanded, and concentration of people with Asthma grew into Arizona’s major cities. Being a city with a high concentration of asthma people, Phoenix’s environment and health officials closely monitors the status of its pollution. They were being alarmed with the harmful effects that were brought by the continuous industrialization in their area. Pollution’s threat to Better-Health Seekers:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      Phoenix, Arizona is a dessert place. Any land disturbances would therefore create dust pollution that would affect its residents. According to the Arizona Republic Online Print Edition, housing construction is a factor in the constant acquiring of pollution of the south Phoenix. Together with this problem is the toxic emmissions from cars and industrial plants. The residents are concerned with the diesel-powered â€Å"16-wheeler† trucks that usually drive through their residential areas. Residents are also worried if industry fires like the 2000 Central Garden Warehouse Fire and chemical spills such as the 1992 Quality Printed Circuits Fire would happen again thus endanger their health. Based on studies, diesel-fuel emmisions are more harmful to people than the regular gasoline emissions. These emissions increase the threat of worsening the condition of people with asthma, together with lung disease and heart attacks. Another r eport states the occurrence of a â€Å"Brown Cloud† over the city that were said to have been caused by the discharge carbon and nitrogen dioxide gas mostly from burning fossil fuels. State Government, Residents and Industry Actions:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Maricopa County Air Quality Department is created in1994 to keep track and enforce air-quality standards. It had organized a seminar at the South Mountain Community College drewing 20 residents as its audience. The residents reported their claims on the current condition of their surroundings’ air. Director of the Air Quality Department, Bob Kard, said everyone must contribute to the elimination of these hazardous air pollutants. He specified that South Phoenix’s air pollution is caused by mainly by automotive fumes, waste gases form industrial plant industries and land disturbances such as made by housing construction. Both the agency and the residents share the same sentiment of being worried for another industry accident. The county formed a sub-committee in south Phoenix, the Industry Challenge/Good Neighbor Partnership which aims to reduce the hazardous pollutants from industry emmissions by 20 percent for the next two y ears. The county also had promised they will put into action more safety measures to prevent such chemical spills at plants said to be handling delicate chemicals such as ammonia, chlorine and nitric acid. Even the above twenty companies operating in south Phoenix supports this drive by joining voluntarily into the partnership. The three sectors had all agreed to come up with cleaner air to our sorroundings as soon as possible, therefore making the city of Phoenix still a haven for better-health seekers such as those suffering from the chronic disease asthma. Is Phoenix still be a safe place for asthmatics?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The state government of Arizona started an initiative to protect its air. The drive was both supported by the residents and industry owners. They had all promised that in the near future, there would be an almost clean atmosphere hovering above the cities of Arizona. But environmentalist states that their actions do not suffice to meet their desired objective. One evidence environmentalist states are the persons who suggested using the plenty normal gasoline after one of the two pipelines supplying Phoenix broke last midyear of 2003 ( tinyvital.com/BlogArchives/000252.html). The two pipelines supplies Phoenix own blend of oxygenated gas, which only few refineries produce. The persons, who had gave a suggestion, unfriendly in turn point out that if the government would still prevent the use of normal gasoline, then Phoenix would face a gas shortage. Remember, there is a drive against the use of diesel because it emits more hazard than the r egular gasoline. Why do sacrifice the health of the residents so as the same residents would not suffer from the increase of gasoline prices because of its shortage? Whatever other material reasons, the government would still prioritize the health of its constituents. If it would give chance to the suggestion wether it is just for temporary resolution, then it would give an idea that the government would allow pollution just as its state would not suffer gas shortage setbacks. Healthy people would not be get affected easily but how come to those persons with asthma and other lung disease. Does the person suggest government to throw away his asthma treatment programs in exchange? Conclusion:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     It is nice that Phoenix had set an ambition to be a medical destination with its asthma treatment centers. The government must continue to support the drive for not only clean air but also for clean land and clean water.   If the private sector would support their actions, then Phoenix would be a permanent haven for all better-health seekers. References: Asthma. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/Asthma/ Asthma: United States. Lycos Retriever. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from lycos.com/info/asthmaunited-states.html Eastwood, S. (2006, January). Brown Air in the Valley. About.com. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from http://phoenix.about.com/od/weather/a/browncloud.htm Hedding, J. Asthma in Phoenix and Tucson. About.com. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from http://phoenix.about.com/cs/health/a/asthma01.htm Melendez, M. (2005, September 30). Some of the Valleys worst air pollution hangs over south Phoenix. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/centralphoenix/articles/0930ext-air30Z4.html Moore, J. (2003, August 19). Environmentalist Cause Phoenix Gas Shortage. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from tinyvital.com/BlogArchives/000252.html

Null Hypothesis Definition and Examples

Null Hypothesis Definition and Examples In a scientific experiment, the null hypothesis is the proposition that there is no effect or no relationship between phenomena or populations. If the null hypothesis is true, any observed difference in phenomena or populations would be due to sampling error (random chance) or experimental error. The null hypothesis is useful because it can be tested and found to be false, which then implies that there is a relationship between the observed data. It may be easier to think of it as a nullifiable hypothesis or one that the researcher seeks to nullify. The null hypothesis is also known as the H0, or no-difference hypothesis. The alternate hypothesis, HA or H1, proposes that observations are influenced by a non-random factor. In an experiment, the alternate hypothesis suggests that the experimental or independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable. How to State a Null Hypothesis There are two ways to state a null hypothesis. One is to state it as a declarative sentence, and the other is to present it as a mathematical statement. For example, say a researcher suspects that exercise is correlated to weight loss, assuming diet remains unchanged. The average length of time to achieve a certain amount of weight loss is six weeks when a person works out five times a week. The researcher wants to test whether weight loss takes longer to occur if the number of workouts is reduced to three times a week. The first step to writing the null hypothesis is to find the (alternate) hypothesis. In a word problem like this, youre looking for what you expect to be the outcome of the experiment. In this case, the hypothesis is I expect weight loss to take longer than six weeks. This can be written mathematically as:  H1: ÃŽ ¼ 6 In this example, ÃŽ ¼ is the average. Now, the null hypothesis is what you expect if this hypothesis does not happen. In this case, if weight loss isnt achieved in greater than six weeks, then it must occur at a time equal to or less than six weeks. This can be written mathematically as: H0: ÃŽ ¼ ≠¤ 6 The other way to state the null hypothesis is to make no assumption about the outcome of the experiment. In this case, the null hypothesis is simply that the treatment or change will have no effect on the outcome of the experiment. For this example, it would be that reducing the number of workouts would not affect the time needed to achieve weight loss: H0: ÃŽ ¼ 6 Null Hypothesis Examples Hyperactivity is unrelated to eating sugar is an example of a null hypothesis. If the hypothesis is tested and found to be false, using statistics, then a connection between hyperactivity and sugar ingestion may be indicated. A significance test is the most common statistical test used to establish confidence in a null hypothesis. Another example of a null hypothesis is Plant growth rate is unaffected by the presence of cadmium in the soil. A researcher could test the hypothesis by measuring the growth rate of plants grown in a medium lacking cadmium, compared with the growth rate of plants grown in mediums containing different amounts of cadmium. Disproving the null hypothesis would set the groundwork for further research into the effects of different concentrations of the element in soil. Why Test a Null Hypothesis? You may be wondering why you would want to test a hypothesis just to find it false. Why not just test an alternate hypothesis and find it true? The short answer is that it is part of the scientific method. In science, propositions are not explicitly proven. Rather, science uses math to determine the probability that a statement is true or false. It turns out its much easier to disprove a hypothesis than to positively prove one. Also, while the null hypothesis may be simply stated, theres a good chance the alternate hypothesis is incorrect. For example, if your null hypothesis is that plant growth is unaffected by duration of sunlight, you could state the alternate hypothesis in several different ways. Some of these statements might be incorrect. You could say plants are harmed by more than 12 hours of sunlight or that plants need at least three hours of sunlight, etc. There are clear exceptions to those alternate hypotheses, so if you test the wrong plants, you could reach the wrong conclusion. The null hypothesis is a general statement that can be used to develop an alternate hypothesis, which may or may not be correct.